The environmental roots of zoonotic diseases: from SARS-CoV-2 to cancer viruses. A review.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.13135/2384-8677/5319Abstract
The destruction of natural habitats and change in land use contribute to biodiversity loss by increasing species extinction and weakening the functions of ecosystems. Ecosystems often are unsafe for humans because animals that host viruses or other pathogens become dominant within impoverished biological communities. The risk of infection propagation from one animal species to other species depends on the size of the reservoir population and the “ability” of pathogen to spillover: an event that is more likely to occur in phylogenetically related hosts. Zoonotic spillover is the transmission of pathogens to humans from vertebrate animals. If human activities contributing to the alteration of ecosystems do not slow down, the critical state of biodiversity can turn into an important driver of emerging pathogens, including viruses involved in neoplastic diseases. A radical reform of the current growth-based economic model is urgently needed to counter the unsustainable human pressure on the natural environment and the risk of new pandemics.
References
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Karpati, A., Galea, S., Awerbuch, T. et al (2002). Variability and vulnerability at the ecological level: implications for understanding the social determinants of health. Am J Public Health, 92, 11.
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Luis, A.D., Hayman, D.T.S., O’Shea, T.J. et al. (2013). A comparison of bats and rodents as reservoirs of zoonotic viruses: are bats special? Proc R Soc B, 280: 20122753.
Mazzola, L.T., & Kelly-Cirino, C. (2019). Diagnostics for Nipah virus: a zoonotic pathogen endemic to Southeast Asia. BMJ Glob Health, 4: e001118.
Mills, J. (2006). Biodiversity loss and emerging infectious disease: An example from the rodent-borne hemorrhagic fevers. Biodiversity, 7: 9-17.
Modonesi, C., Oddone, E., Panizza, C. et al. (2017). The missing link between human ecology and public health: the case of cancer. G Ital Med Lav Erg, 39:2, 106-112.
Neef, M. (1995). Economic growth and quality of life: a threshold hypothesis. Ecol Econ 15(2):115–118.
Nevels, M., Täuber, B., Spruss, T. et al. (2001). “Hit-and-run” transformation by adenovirus oncogenes. J Virol, 75 (7):3089-94.
O’Shea, T.J., Cryan, P.M., Cunningham, A.A. et al. (2014). Bat flight and zoonotic viruses. Emerg Infect Dis, 20: 741-745.
Ostfeld, R.S., & Keesing, F. (2000). Biodiversity and disease risk: the case of Lyme disease. Conserv Biol, 14: 722-728.
Pandit, R., Scholes, R., Montanarella, L. et al. (2018). Summary for policymakers of the assessment report on land degradation and restoration. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Available from: https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/ldr
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Pe’er, G., Dicks, L.V., Visconti, P. et al. (2014). EU agricultural reform fails on biodiversity. Science, 344; 6188, 1090-1092.
Plowright, R.K., Eby, P., Hudson, P.J. et al. (2015). Ecological dynamics of emerging bat virus spillover. Proc R Soc B, 282: 20142124.
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Sekulova, F., Kallis, G., Rodrìguez-Labajos, B. et al. (2013). Degrowth: From theory to practice. J Clean Prod 38:1–6. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.06.022.
Sen, A. (2001). Economic progress and health. In: D. Leon & G. Walt, (eds). Poverty, Inequality, and Health: An International Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sharp, P.M., Bailes, E., Chaudhuri, R.R. et al. (2001). The origins of acquired immune deficiency syndrome viruses: where and when? Phil Trans R Soc Lond B, 56; 1410: 867-76.
Tapia Granados, J.A. (2005). Response: On economic growth, business fluctuations, and health progress. Intern J Epidem, 2005;34:1226–1233.
Preston, S.H. (1996) Population studies of mortality. Popul Stud, 50: 525–36.
Taylor, L.H, Latham, S.M., & Woolhouse, M.E. (2001). Risk factors for human disease emergence. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B, 356: 983-89.
Tustin, R. (1969). Ovine jaagsiekte. J S Afr Vet Med Assoc, 40:3–23.
Voisset, C., Weiss, R.A., & Griffiths, D.J. (2008). Human RNA rumor viruses: the search for novel human retroviruses in chronic disease. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev, 72 (1):157-96.
Wang, L.F., & Anderson, D.E. (2019). Viruses in bats and potential spillover to animals and humans. Curr Opin Virol, 34: 79-89.
Wang, L.F., & Eaton, B. (2007). Bats, civets and the zoonotic diseases: the biology, circumstances and consequences of cross-species transmission. Springer, New York.
Wang, L.F., Walker, P.J., & Poon, L.L. (2011). Mass extinctions, biodiversity and mitochondrial function: are bats special as reservoirs for emerging viruses? Curr Opin Virol, 1, 649–657.
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Burki, T.K. (2020). Cancer guidelines during the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet Oncol, 1-2.doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(20)30217-5.
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D’Alisa, G., Demaria F., Kallis, G. (eds) (2014). Degrowth: a vocabulary for a new era. Routledge, London.
Daszak, P., Cunningham, A.A., Hyatt, A.D. (2001). Anthropogenic environmental change and the emergence of infectious diseases in wildlife. Acta Trop, 78: 103-16.
Diez-Roux, A.V. (1988). Bringing context back into epidemiology: variables and fallacies in multilevel analysis. Am J Public Health, 88: 216–222.
Dobson, A.P., & Carper, E.R. (1996). Infectious diseases and human population history. BioScience, 46: 115-126.
Drexler, J., Corman, V., Müller, M. et al. (2012). Bats host major mammalian paramyxoviruses. Nat Commun, 3:796. doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1796.
Easterlin, R.A. (1974). Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot? In: P.A. David, M.W. Readers (eds). Nations and households in economic growth: essays in honour of Moses Abramovitz. Academic Press, New York.
Efird, J.T., Davies, S.W., O’Neal, W.T. et al. 2014. Animal viruses, bacteria, and cancer: a brief commentary. Front Pub Health Epidem, 2: 14, 1-8.
Elton, C.S. (1958). The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. Muehuen, London.
Engels, D., & Savioli, L. (2006). Reconsidering the underestimated burden caused by neglected tropical diseases. Trends Parasitol, 22: 363-6.
Giuliani, A., & Modonesi, C. (2011). Scienza della natura e stregoni di passaggio. Jaca Book, Milano.
Gottdenker, N.L., Streicker, D.J., Faust, C.L. et al. (2014). Anthropogenic Land Use Change and Infectious Diseases: A Review of the Evidence. EcoHealth, 11(4):619-32.
Hahn, B.H., Shaw, G.M., De Cock, K.M. et al. (2000). AIDS as a zoonosis: scientific and public health implications. Science, 287: 607-614.
Hess, A.D., & Hayes, R.O. (1970). Relative potentials of domestic animals for zooprophylaxis against encephalitis. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 19, 327-334.
Hundesa, A., Maluquer de Motes, C., Bofill-Mas, S. et al. (2006). Identification of human and animal adenoviruses and polyomaviruses for determination of sources of fecal contamination in the environment. Appl Environ Microbiol, 72 (12):7886-93.
Javier, R.T. (2008). Cell polarity proteins: common targets for tumorigenic human viruses. Oncogene, 27(55): 7031-7046.
Hussein, K., Frauke, E., Magnus, E. et al. (2016). Declining ecosystem health and the dilution effect. Sci Rep, 6:31314. doi:10.1038/srep31314.
Institute of Medicine (2006). A World in Motion: The Global Movement of People, Products, Pathogens, and Power. Forum on Microbial Threats. In: S. Knobler, A. Mahmoud A, S. Lemon et al. (eds). The Impact of Globalization on Infectious Disease Emergence and Control: Exploring the Consequences and Opportunities: Workshop Summary. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US).
ILRI, International Livestock Research Institute (2012). Mapping of poverty and likely zoonoses hotspots. Zoonoses Project 4. Report to Department for International Development, UK. Nairobi, Kenya.
Jablonka, E. (2011). The entangled (and constructed) human bank. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B (2011) 366, 784.
Johnson, C.K, Hitchens, P.L., Evans T.S. et al. (2015). Spillover and pandemic properties of zoonotic viruses with high host plasticity. Sci Rep, 2015; 5: 14830.
Johnson, CK., Hitchens, P.L., Pandit, P.S. et al. (2020). Global shifts in mammalian population trends reveal key predictors of virus spillover risk. Proc R Soc B, 287: 20192736, 1-10.
Johnson, P.T.J., & Thieltges, D.W. (2010). Diversity, decoys and the dilution effect: how ecological communities affect disease risk. J Exp Biol, 213, 961-970.
Johnson, P.T.J., Ostfeld, R.S., & Keesing, F. (2015). Frontiers in research on biodiversity and disease. Ecol Lett, 18: 1119-1133.
Jones, B.A., Grace, D., Kock., R. et al. (2013). Zoonosis emergence linked to agricultural intensification and environmental change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110: 8399-8404.
Jones, K.E., Patel, N.G., Levy, M.A., et al. (2008). Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature, 451: 990-3.
Karesh, W.B., Dobson, A., Lloyd-Smith, J.O. et al. (2012). Ecology of zoonoses: natural and unnatural histories. Lancet, 380: 1936-45.
Karpati, A., Galea, S., Awerbuch, T. et al (2002). Variability and vulnerability at the ecological level: implications for understanding the social determinants of health. Am J Public Health, 92, 11.
Keesing, F., Holt, R.D., & Ostfeld, R.S. (2006). Effects of species diversity on disease risk. Ecol Lett, 9: 485-498.
Latouche, S. (2009). Farewell to growth, Cambridge Polity Press.
Levins, R., & Lopez, C. (1999). Toward and ecosocial view of health. Int. J Health, 29 (2):261-93.
Lewontin, R., & Levins, R. (2008). Preparing for uncertainty. In: R. Lewontin & R. Levins, Biology under the influence: Dialectical Essays on Ecology, Agriculture, and Health. Monthly Review Press, New York, US.
LoGiudice, K., Ostfeld, R.S., Schmidt, K.A. et al. (2003). The ecology of infectious disease: effects of host diversity and community composition on Lyme disease risk. Proc Nat Acad Sci, 100: 567-571.
Luis, A.D., Hayman, D.T.S., O’Shea, T.J. et al. (2013). A comparison of bats and rodents as reservoirs of zoonotic viruses: are bats special? Proc R Soc B, 280: 20122753.
Mazzola, L.T., & Kelly-Cirino, C. (2019). Diagnostics for Nipah virus: a zoonotic pathogen endemic to Southeast Asia. BMJ Glob Health, 4: e001118.
Mills, J. (2006). Biodiversity loss and emerging infectious disease: An example from the rodent-borne hemorrhagic fevers. Biodiversity, 7: 9-17.
Modonesi, C., Oddone, E., Panizza, C. et al. (2017). The missing link between human ecology and public health: the case of cancer. G Ital Med Lav Erg, 39:2, 106-112.
Neef, M. (1995). Economic growth and quality of life: a threshold hypothesis. Ecol Econ 15(2):115–118.
Nevels, M., Täuber, B., Spruss, T. et al. (2001). “Hit-and-run” transformation by adenovirus oncogenes. J Virol, 75 (7):3089-94.
O’Shea, T.J., Cryan, P.M., Cunningham, A.A. et al. (2014). Bat flight and zoonotic viruses. Emerg Infect Dis, 20: 741-745.
Ostfeld, R.S., & Keesing, F. (2000). Biodiversity and disease risk: the case of Lyme disease. Conserv Biol, 14: 722-728.
Pandit, R., Scholes, R., Montanarella, L. et al. (2018). Summary for policymakers of the assessment report on land degradation and restoration. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Available from: https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/ldr
Parkin, D.M. (2006). The global health burden of infection-associated cancers in the year 2002. Int J Cancer, 118 (12):3030-44.
Parsonnet, J. (1999). Introduction. In: J. Parsonnet (ed), Microbes and Malignancy Infection as a Cause of Human Cancers. Oxford University Press, New York.
Patil, R.R., Kumar, C., & Bagvandas, M. (2017). Biodiversity loss: Public health risk of disease spread and epidemics. Ann Trop
Med Public Health 2017;10:1432-8).
Patz, J.A., Confalonieri, U.E.C., Amerasinghe, F.P., et al. (2005). Human health: ecosystem regulation of infectious diseases. In: R. Hassan, R. Scholes, N. Ash (eds), Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Condition and Trends Working Group. Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends. Vol. 1: Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Patz, J.A., Daszak, P., Tabor, J.M. et al. (2004). Unhealthy landscapes: policy recommendations on land use change and infectious disease emergence. Env Health Persp, 112, 1092-1098.
Pe’er, G., Dicks, L.V., Visconti, P. et al. (2014). EU agricultural reform fails on biodiversity. Science, 344; 6188, 1090-1092.
Plowright, R.K., Eby, P., Hudson, P.J. et al. (2015). Ecological dynamics of emerging bat virus spillover. Proc R Soc B, 282: 20142124.
Pope Francis, (2015). On care for our common home. Encyclical letter laudato si’. Available from: http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudatosi.html
Sandberg, S., Awerbuch, T.E., & Gonin, R. (1996). Simplicity vs complexity in deterministic models: an application to AIDS data. J Biol Systems, 4:61–81.
Sekulova, F., Kallis, G., Rodrìguez-Labajos, B. et al. (2013). Degrowth: From theory to practice. J Clean Prod 38:1–6. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.06.022.
Sen, A. (2001). Economic progress and health. In: D. Leon & G. Walt, (eds). Poverty, Inequality, and Health: An International Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sharp, P.M., Bailes, E., Chaudhuri, R.R. et al. (2001). The origins of acquired immune deficiency syndrome viruses: where and when? Phil Trans R Soc Lond B, 56; 1410: 867-76.
Tapia Granados, J.A. (2005). Response: On economic growth, business fluctuations, and health progress. Intern J Epidem, 2005;34:1226–1233.
Preston, S.H. (1996) Population studies of mortality. Popul Stud, 50: 525–36.
Taylor, L.H, Latham, S.M., & Woolhouse, M.E. (2001). Risk factors for human disease emergence. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B, 356: 983-89.
Tustin, R. (1969). Ovine jaagsiekte. J S Afr Vet Med Assoc, 40:3–23.
Voisset, C., Weiss, R.A., & Griffiths, D.J. (2008). Human RNA rumor viruses: the search for novel human retroviruses in chronic disease. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev, 72 (1):157-96.
Wang, L.F., & Anderson, D.E. (2019). Viruses in bats and potential spillover to animals and humans. Curr Opin Virol, 34: 79-89.
Wang, L.F., & Eaton, B. (2007). Bats, civets and the zoonotic diseases: the biology, circumstances and consequences of cross-species transmission. Springer, New York.
Wang, L.F., Walker, P.J., & Poon, L.L. (2011). Mass extinctions, biodiversity and mitochondrial function: are bats special as reservoirs for emerging viruses? Curr Opin Virol, 1, 649–657.
Weiss, M., & Cattaneo, C. (2017). Degrowth: taking stock and reviewing an emerging academic paradigm. Ecol Econ, 137: 220-230.
Weiss, R.A. (2007). Viruses and cancer. In: R. Nesse (ed). Evolution and Medicine: How New Applications Advance Research and Practice. The Biomedical and Life Sciences Collection. Henry Stewart Talks Ltd, London.
White, R.J., & Razgour, O. (2020). Emerging zoonotic diseases originating in mammals: a systematic review of effects of anthropogenic land use change. Mammal Review, doi: 10.1111/mam.12201.
Wolfe, N.D., Daszak, P., Kilpatrick, A.M. et al. (2005). Bushmeat hunting, deforestation, and prediction of zoonoses emergence. Emerg Infect Dis, 11: 1822-1827.
WHO, World Health Organization (1982). Manual on environmental management for mosquito control, with special emphasis on malaria vectors. WHO Offset Publ, 66, 1-283.
WHO, World Health Organization (2011). Burden: mortality, morbidity and risk factors. In: Global Status Report on non-communicable diseases, 2010. World Health Organization Library.
WHO, World Health Organization (2014). A brief guide to emerging infectious diseases and zoonoses. Library cataloguing in publication data, Regional Office for South-East Asia.
WHO, World Health Organization (2019a). Summary of probable SARS cases with onset of illness from 1 November 2002 to 31 July 2003, 2004, 2019. February 1. Available from: https://www.who.int/csr/sars/country/table2004_04_21/en
WHO, World Health Organization (2019b). Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERSCoV). Available from: https://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en
Zhang, G., Cowled, C., Shi, Z. et al. (2013). Comparative analysis of bat genomes provides insight into the evolution of flight and immunity. Science, 339, 456-460.
Zhou, P., Fan, H., Lan, T. et al. (2018). Fatal swine acute diarrhoea syndrome caused by an HKU2-related coronavirus of bat origin. Nature, 556: 255.
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